Monday 28 January 2019

Congestive heart failure

January 28, 2019
▪ Congestive heart failure introduction
▪ Classification of drugs used
▪ Pharmacology of drug
▪ Treatment of CHF

CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE 

The function of heart is to pump an adequate amount of blood to various tissues. In CHF (Congestive heart failure), there is an inadequate or inefficient contraction of heart leading to reduced cardiac output.

In initial stages of CHF, the compensatory mechanisms try to maintain the proper cardiac output which are :
     • increased sympathetic activity.
     • increased renin-angiotensin aldosterone activity.
     • myocardial hyertrophy and remodelling.

The basic haemodynamic disturbances seen in congestive cardiac failure are :
     • increased pulmonary capillary pressure termed as backward failure, which is characterised by dysnoea and orthopnoea.
     • decreased cardiac output termed as forward failure, leading to decreased oxygen supply to the peripheral tissue.



CLASSIFICATION

1) Diuretics.
a. Loop diuretics : furosemide, bumetanide, torsemide.
b. Thiazide diuretics : chlorothiazide, hydrochlorothiazide.
c. K+ sparing diuretics : spironolactone, amiloride.

 2) Cardiac glycosides : digoxin, digitoxin.

 3) Vasodilator : 
a. Arteriolar dilators : hydralazine, minoxidil, nicorandil.
b. Venodilators : nitrates.
c. Arteriolar and venodilators : ACE inhibitors, sodium nitroprusside.

 4) beta-blockers : metoprolol, bisoprolol, carvedilol.

 5) sympathomimetic amines : dopamine, dobutamine.

 6) phosphodiesterase inhibitors : amrinone, milrinone.

TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE 

There are two distinct goals of drug therapy in CHF :

a) Relief of congestive/low output symptoms and restoration of cardiac performance :
    Drugs used in this are : digoxin, dobutamine, dopamine, amrinone, furosemide, thiazides, ACE inhibitors, hydralazine, nitrates, metoprolol, bisoprolol, carvedilol.

b) Arrest/reversal of disease progression and prolongation of survival :
    Drugs used in this are : ACE inhibitors, Beta blockers, spironolactone.

Also read : Tuberculosis treatment, pharmacology of Anti tubercular drugs
                   Anti anxiety, classification, etc..                   Antihypertensive
                  

CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES 

Chemistry :
The glycosides consist of an aglycone (steroid nucleus with an attached lactone ring) with one or more sugar moieties attached to it. They have potent action on the heart, hence referred to as cardiac glycosides.

Mechanism of action of Digitalis :
Na+ K+ -ATPase is a membrane bound enzyme which is called digitalis receptor. It is also called sodium pump.


PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTION

1.Cardiac
2. Extracardiac

Cardiac actions :
Digitalis has direct and indirect actions on heart.
▪ direct action by inhibiting Na+ K+ -ATPase.
▪ indirect action by stimulating vagus.

1. Myocardial contractility : 
  •  digitalis increases the forces of contraction of the myocardium (positive inotropic effect).
  •  The positive inotropic effect causes complete emptying of ventricles during systole and increases the cardiac output.
  •  This decreases pulmonary congestion and systemic venous pressure.
  • Diastolic size of heart is reduced and hence size of the muscle fibre length also reduced, thereby, decreases the oxygen requirement of myocardium.
  •  The digitalised heart, now can do more work for the same energy.
2. Heart rate : 
  • digitalis reduces the heart rate by direct and indirect action, in small doses, it causes decreased heart rate.
3. Electrophysiological action :
  • at therapeutic concentration, digoxin decreases automaticity and increases membrane potential by vagal action in atria and AV node.

Extra cardiac :

1. Gasrtointestinal tract : digitalis can produce anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea.

2. Kidney : causes diuresis.

3. Central nervous system : in high doses, it can causes central sympathetic stimulation, confusion, blurring of vision, disorientation.

PHARMACOKINETICS

Digoxin is the commonly used glycoside and administered by oral route.
widely distributed in body, concentrated in the heart, liver, kidneys, and skeletal muscle.
crosses the BBB and is mainly excreted in urine.

ADVERSE EFFECT 

1. Extra cardiac : 
    i) GIT : anorexia, nausea, vomiting.
   ii) CNS : headache, confusion, restlessness, disorientation, weakness, visual disturbances, altered mood and hallucination.
  iii) Skin rashes and gynaecomastia : it can occur occasionally.

2. Cardiac : digitalis can causes any type of arrhythmia. The most common are ventricular premature beats, pulses bigeminy and ventricular tachycardia. Also cause A-V block , atrial tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, even severe bradycardia.

DIURETICS

Thiazides are used in mild to moderate cardiac failure. They inhibits Na+ -Cl- symport in the cortical diluting sigment.

Loop diuretics inhibits Na+  - K+   -2Cl-  cotransport, mainly in the thick ascending limb of the loop of henle. 

Loop diuretcs are mainly used in severe cardiac failure, pulmonary oedema and refractory heart failure.

Causes : Hypokalaemia.

ACE INHIBITORS 

These are the first line drugs in treatment of chronic heart failure. They inhibit the conversion of angiotensin-I to angiotensin-II.

Beta BLOCKER

Metaprolol, bisoprolol, are useful in mild to moderate heart failure. 
Long term therapy with these drugs improves symptoms, reduces hospitalization and decreases mortality in patients with mild to moderate heart failure.

DOPAMINE

At low concentration, dopamine selectively dilates renal, mesenteric and coronary blood vessels by acting on D1 receptors. Thus dopamine increases GFR and urine output.

At moderate concentration, stimulates Beta receptors of heart, increases myocardial contractility and cardiac output.

At high concentration, it causes generalized vasoconstriction. This increases afterload and reduces blood flow to renal, mesenteric and other vital organs. So the beneficial effects seen with low to moderate doses of dopamine are lost at higher concentration.

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Wednesday 23 January 2019

Pharmacology important terms

January 23, 2019
Here we are studying some Important terms of pharmacology.



Pharmacology : science of drug,
In broad it deals with exogenously administered chemical molecules with living system or any single chemical materials which can produce a biological response known as drug.

Drug : drug is a substance present in medicine used for diagnosis, treatment, cure of disease in humans and animals.

Pharmacokinetics : movement of the drugs within the body ; it includes the process of absorbtion, distribution, metabolism, excretion.
In short we can say 'what the body does to the drug, .

Pharmacodynamics : It is the study of drugs- their mechanism of action, pharmacological actions, adverse effect, means it covers all aspects relating to 'what the drug does to the body.

Chemotherapy : It deals with the treatment of infectious diseases/cancer with chemical compounds that have relatively selective toxicity for the infecting organism or cell cancer.

Clinical Pharmacology : It is systematic study of drug in man, both in healthy volunteers and in patients, it includes the evuation of pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic data, the safety, efficacy and adverse effects of a drug by comparative clinical trials.

Essential drugs : Essential drugs are those that satisfy the health care needs of majority of the population.

Orphan drugs : Drugs that are used for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of rare diseases.

Bioavailability : It is the fraction of drug that reaches the systemic circulation from a given dose in an unchanged form.

Biotransformation : Chemical alteration of drug in a living organism is called biotransformation.

Excretion : removal of drug and its metabolites from body is known as drug excretion. The main channel of excretion of drug are kidneys, others are lungs, faeces, sweat, saliva, tears, milk.

Clearance : it is defined as the fraction of apparent volume of the distribution from which the drug is removed.

Apparent volume of distribution : it is defined as the hypothetical volume of body fluid into which a drug is uniformly distributed at a concentration equal to that in plasma.

Blood brain barrier BBB : The capillary boundary that is present between the blood and brain.

Placental barrier : The lipid membrane between mother and foetus.

Drug potency : The quantity of drug required to produce a desired response is potency of drug.

Drug efficacy : It is the maximum effect of drug.

Antagonism : The effect of one drug is decreased or abolished in the presence of another drug.

Agonist : an agonist bind to receptor and mimic the action of other chemical substance.

Antagonist : an antagonist binds to receptor and block the action of other chemical substance.

Tachyphylaxis : when a drug administered repeatedly at short interval, response diminishes rapidly.

Adverse effect : any undesirable and unwanted effect due to drug administration which needs caution in future use.

Idiosyncrasy : it is usually a genetically determined adverse reaction to drugs.
e.g. aplastic anaemia caused by chloranphenicol.

Glaucoma : glaucoma is progressive optic neuropathy which leads to damage of optic nerve with loss of visual function that is associated frequently with raised IOP.

Myasthenia gravis : it is autoimmune disorder where antibodies are produced against Nm receptor of NMJ resulting in a decrease in number of Nm receptor.

Cholinergic agent : Mimic the action of cholinergic drugs

Anticholinergic agent : block the action of cholinergic drugs.

Adrenergic agonist : mimic the action of sympathetic stimulation.

Adrenergic antagonist : block the action of sympathetic stimulation.

Hypertension : hypertension is the most common cardiovascular condition. A persistent and sustained high blood pressure has damaging effect on heart, brain, kidneys and eyes.

Angina pectoris : the main symptom of ischaemic heart disease, is due to an imbalance between oxygen supply and oxygen demand of myocardium.

Congestive cardiac failure :there is an inadequate contraction of heart leading to reduced cardiac output.

Arrhythmia : disturbances in cardiac rythm (i.e. abnormality in site of origin of inpulse, its rate, regularity or conduction).

Plasma volume expander : plasma volume expander are colloidal solution used for temporary maintenance of blood volume in emergency situations.

Diuretics : diuretics are drugs that promote the excretion of Na+ and water in urine.

Osmotic diuretic : these includes mannitol, urea and glycerol.

Anti diuretics : reduces urine volume.

Sedatives : drug that reduces excitement and clams the person.

Hypnotics : drug that produces sleep resembling normal sleep.

General anaesthetic : refers to drug induced reversible loss of consciousness and all sensations.

Local anaesthetic :  drug which applied topically or injected locally, block nerve conduction and cause reversible loss of all sensations in part supplied by the nerve.

Epilepsy : epilepsy is a disorder of brain function characterized by paroxymal cerebral dysrhythmia.

Analgesics : Drugs that relieve pain without significantly altering consciousness.

Parkinson's disease : first described by Sir James Parkinson. It is characterised by tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, and loss of postural reflexes.

Antipsychotic drug : also known as neuroleptic drugs or antischizophrenic drugs. Mainly used in schizophrenia, acute mania, other acute psychotic states.

Anti anxiety : drug that can relieve anxiety without interfering mental and physical function.

Anxiety : physical and emotional distress which interfere in normal life.

Mania : mania is an affective disorder that manifests as elation, agitation, hyperactivity, uncontrolled, thought and speech.
Drugs used as antimanic agent : lithium.

Histamine : histamine is a biogenic amine present in many animal and plant tissues. It is also present in venoms and stinging secretions. It is synthesized by decarboxylation of amino acid, histidine.

Prostaglandins : prostaglandins are products of long chain fatty acids. They are widely distributed in the body.
The main prostaglandins in man are PGE2, PGE2alpha, PGI2.

Gout : gout is a disorder of purine metabolism in which plasma urate concentration is raised either due to overproduction or impaired excretion of uric acid.

Rheumatoid arthritis : Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic multi-system autoimmune disease of unknown cause, the main characteristic feature is persistent inflammatory synovitis of peripheral smaller joints.

Antitussives : they inhibit the cough reflex by suppressing the cough centre in thr medulla. They are used for the symptomatic treatment of dry unproductive cough.

Expectorants : expectorants are substance used for the removal of sputum from respiratory tract. e.g. iodides, chlorides etc.

Mucolytics : these agents break the thick tenacious sputum and lower the viscosity of sputum, so that sputum comes out easily with less effort.

Bronchial asthma : impairment of airflow due contraction of bronchial smooth muscle, swelling of bronchial mucosa and increased bronchial mucus secretion.

Emetics : drug that produce vomiting are called emetics.

Antiemetics : drugs that are used to prevent or control vomiting are called antiemetics.

Coagulants : they promote the coagulation of blood and hence are used to prevent or treat haemorrhagic states.

Local haemostatics : these drugs are used locally to control bleeding from capillaries and minute vessels.

Anticoagulant : drugs that reduce the coagulability of blood.
e.g. heparin.

Fibrinolytics : fibrinolytics promote the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin.

Antiplatelet : drugs that inhibit platelet aggregation are called antiplatelet.

Haematinics : Haematinics such as iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, etc. are required for formation of blood and are used in the treatment of anaemia.

Erythropoietin : it is a glycoprotein produced by peritubular interstitial cells of the kidneys in response to hypoxaemia.

Hypoxaemia : low level of oxygen in blood.

Diabetes mellitus : it is a clinical syndrome characterised by hyperglycaemia due to absolute or relative deficiency of insulin.

Chemotherapy : Chemotherapy is the treatment of infectious diseases or malignancy with drugs to destroy microorganisms or cancer cells preferentially with minimal damage to the host tissues.

Amoebiasis : amoebiasis is a protozoal infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica, which is transmitted through faecal-oral route.

Anthelmintics : drugs used in treatment of infections with helminths in the intestinal tract or tissues of body.


Some more will be posted soon.




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Monday 21 January 2019

Advantages and disadvantages of routes of drug administration

January 21, 2019
You will get here Advantages and disadvantages of routes of drug administration.
Different routes are Oral route, sublingual route, rectal route, parentral routes, subcutaneous, intravenous, Intramuscular.


ORAL ROUTE 

Advantages
● Safer
● Cheaper
● Painless
● Convenient for repeated and prolonged use.
● Can be self  administered.

Disadvantages 
● Oral route has a slow onset of action, hence not used in emergency.
● It is not suitable for/in-
    - unpalatable and highly irritant drugs.
    - unabsorbable drugs  (e.g.      aminoglycosides).
    - drugs that are destroyed by digestive juices  (e.g. adrenaline).
    - drugs with extensive first pass      metabolism (e.g. lignocaine)
    - unconscious patients.
    - uncooperative and unreliable patients.
    - patients with severe vomiting and diarrhoea.

SUBLINGUAL ROUTE 

Advantages 
● Quick onset of action.
● Action can be terminated by spitting out the tablet.
● Byasses the first pass metabolism.
● Self administration is possible.

Disadvantages 
● It is not suitable-
    - for irritant drugs.
    - for lipid soluble drugs.
    - for drugs with bad smell and taste.
    - in children.

RECTAL ROUTE 

Advantages 
● Used in children.
● Little or no first pass effect.
● Used in unconscious patients.
● Higher concentration rapidly achieved.

Disadvantages
● Inconvenient.
● Slow absorption.
● Irritation and inflammation of rectal   mucosa can occur.

PARENTERAL ROUTE

Advantages 
● It has rapid action, hence suitable for emergency.
● It is useful in-
    - unconscious patients.
    - uncooperative and unreliable patients.
    - the presence of vomiting and diarrhoea.
● It is suitable for-
    - irritant drugs.
    - drugs with high first pass metabolism.
    - drugs not absorbed orally.
    - drugs destroyed by digestive juices.

Disadvantages 
● Require sterilization and aseptic condition.
● Are expensive.
● Require invasive techniques, whuch are painful.
● Cannot be usually self administered
● Can cause local tissue injury to nerves,  vessels, etc.

INHALATION

Advantages 
● Quick action
● Dose required is very less.
● Amount of drug administered can be   regulated.

Disadvantages 
● Local irritation may cause increased respiratory secretions and bronchospasm.

INTRADERMAL ROUTE

Advantages 
● Absorption is slow ( this is advantage in testing for allergies).

Disadvantages 
● Amount of drug administered must be small.

SUBCUTANEOUS ROUTE 

Advantages 
● Oily solution can be given.
● Self administration is possible.

Disadvantages 
● Irritant drug cannot be given.
● Volume limitation (1 to 2 ml ).
● Absorption is slow.

INTRAMUSCULAR 

Advantages 
● Absorption is rapid as compared to oral r.
● Mild irritant, depot injections, soluble substances, and suspension can be given.

Disadvantages 
● Aseptic conditions needed.
● Painful.
● Self administration is not possible.
● There may be injury to nerve.

INTRAVENOUS

Advantages 
● Bioavailability is 100%.
● Quick onset of action.
● Large volume of fluid can be administered.
● Highly irritant drugs can be given, e.g. anti cancer.
● Hypertonic solution can be infused by i.v.

Disadvantages 
● Once the drug injected, can't be halted.
● Local irritation may cause phlebitis.
● Self administration is not possible.
● Strict aseptic condition are needed.
● Extravasation of some drugs can cause   injury, sloughing of tissues.



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Also read
Antianxiety, Antianxiety medication, classification
Epilepsy treatment, Classification, etc...
Antibiotic resistance
Penicillin and penicillin allergy
Tuberculosis, Classification,pharmacology of Antituberculars

Saturday 19 January 2019

Pharmacology of ACE inhibitors

January 19, 2019
How angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors works / pharmacology of ACE inhibitors/angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors.


ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS


Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors are used as Antihypertensive drugs.
• they inhibit generation of angiotensin II, which is a potent vasoconstrictor.
• they inhibit the degradation of bradykinin, which is potent vasodilator.
• they stimulate the synthesis of vasodilating PGs through bradykinin.
• reduce sympathetic nervous system activity.

MECHANISM OF ACTION


▪ACE inhibitors also reduce aldosterone production hence sodium and water rentention.

▪They dilate both arteries as well as veins, hence they reduce afterload and preload.

▪All these actions contribute to their Antihypertensive effect.

PHARMACOKINETICS


▪ ACE inhibitors are usually given orally.
▪ In emergency, enalapril can be given intravenously.
▪ Food reduces absorption of captopril hence it should be given 1 hour before meals.
▪ They poorly cross the BBB.
▪ Metabolized in liver and excreted in urine.

ADVERSE EFFECT 


1.Cough
2.Angioedema.
3.Proteinuria.
4.Taste alteration.
5.Teratogenic effect.
6.Severe hypotension may occur 1-2 hour after taking first dose.
7.Neutropenia.
8.Rashes.
9.Itching.
10.Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea.

USES OF ACE INHIBITORS

 
1 Hypertension : use of ACE inhibitors reduces the incidence of heart disease in hypertensive patient. ACE inhibitors are useful in all grades of hypertension.

2 Congestive cardiac failure : ACE inhibitors should be prescribed to all patients with inpaired left ventricular function.

3 Myocardial infarction : ACE inhibitors should be started within 24 hours in patients with MI.

4 Diabetic nephropathy : ACE inhibitors are preferred in diabetic nephropathy as they control both systemic hypertension and intraglomerular pressure.

5 Scleroderma renal crisis : ACE inhibitors produce dramatic improvement in patients with renal crisis and accerelated hypertension.


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,

Antihypertensive drugs | Antihypertensive classification

January 19, 2019
You will know here - what is hypertension, blood pressure and Antihypertensive drugs | Antihypertensive classifications.

HYPERTENSION


    Hypertension is the most common cardiovascular condition. A persistent and sustained high blood pressure has damaging effect on heart, brain, kidneys, and eyes.
Hypertension is generally classified :


[1] Primary or essential hypertension :
In more than 95% of cases, there is no specific underlying cause. 
[2] Secondary hypertension :
It is seen in about 5% of cases. It can be due to specific disease or drug.

BLOOD PRESSURE 

▪ Systolic blood pressure (SBP) : It is the maximum pressure recorded during ventricular systole.
▪ Diastolic blood pressure  (DBP) : It is the minimum pressure recorded during ventricular diastole.
▪ Pulse pressure  (PP) : SBP-DBP
▪ Mean arterial pressure : DBP + 1/3 PP.

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS

CLASSIFICATION : 
1》 Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors : Captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, ramipril.

2》 Angiotensin-II-receptor antagonist : losartan, valsartan, irbesartan, candesartan.

3》 Calcium channel blocker : amlodipine, nicardipine, nimodipine, felodipine, diltiazem.

4》 Diuretics :
a. Thiazides : hydrochlorothiazide, chlorothiazide.
b. Loop diuretics : bumetanide, furosemide.
c. Potassium sparing diuretics : spironolactone, amiloride.

5》 Sympatholytic drugs :
a. Centrally acting agents: clonidine, methyldopa.
b. Ganglionic blocker: trimethaphan.
c. Neuronal blockers : reserpine.
d. Alpha-adrenergic blocker: 
(i) non selective: phenoxybenzamine, phentolamine.
(ii) selective: prazosin, terazosin.
e. Beta-adrenergic blockers:
(i) non selective: propranolol, metoprolol.
(ii) selective: atenolol.

6》 Vasodilator :
a. Arteriolar: hydralazine, diazoxide.
b. Arterial and venodilator: sodium nitroprusside.


Also read : Pharmacology of ACE inhibitors



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Thursday 17 January 2019

Routes of drug administration

January 17, 2019
In this article, routes of drug administration, local route and systemic route is covered in very easiest way.

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION





    Most of drugs can be administered by different routes.
    Drug and patient related factors determine the selection of routes.
    The factors are.
[1] Characteristics of drug
[2] Emergency use
[3] Condition of patient
[4] Age
[5] Associated disease
[6] Sometimes patient's and doctor's choice.

 ROUTES
1. LOCAL
2. SYSTEMIC

LOCAL ROUTE
    It is the simplest mode of administration of drug at the site where the desired action is required.
[1] Topical - This refers to external application of drug to the surface of localised action.
    The drug can be delivered to - 
a) Oral cavity : e.g. nystatin, clotrimazole.
b) GI tract : e.g. neomycin.
c) Rectum and anal canal
d) Eye, ear, nose : e.g. ointments, sprays.
e) Bronchi : e.g. salbutamol, ipratropium     bromide
f) Vagina : e.g. pessaries.
g) Urethra : e.g. lignocaine.

[2] Deeper tissues - Deep areas can be approached by using syringes, needles but the drug should be in such a form that systemic absorption is slow, e.g. intra-articular injection (hydrocortisone acetate), infiltration around nerve (lidocaine).

[3] Arterial supply - Close intra-arterial injection is used for contrast media in angiography.

SYSTEMIC ROUTE
    The drug administered through systemic route is intended to be absorbed into the blood stream and distributed all over, including site of action through circulation.

[1] Oral - Old and commonest method of drug administration. Both solid dosage form (powders, tablets, capsules, spansules, dragees) and liquid dosage form (elixers, syrup, emulsion, mixtures) can be administered orally.

[2] Sublingual/buccal - Tablet containing drug placed under tongue or crushed in mouth and spread over the buccal mucosa.

[3] Rectal - Irritant and unpleasant drugs can be put into rectum as suppositories.
Diazepam, indomethacin, ergotamine, paracetamol and few other drugs given by this route.

[4] Cutaneous - Highly lipid soluble drugs can be applied on skin for slow and prolonged absorption. Absorption of drug can be increased by rubbing the preparation.

[5] Inhalation - Volatile liquid and gases are given by inhalation for systemic action, e.g. general anesthetics. Absorption takes place from the surface of alveoli, action is very rapid.

[6] Nasal - This route is specially used for drugs like insulin, as well as to bypass the BBB.

[7] Parentral - It refers to injection of drug which takes the drug directly into tissue fluid and blood without having to cross the enteral mucosa.

     The important parentral routes are - 
a) Subcutaneous - The drug is delivered into loose subcutaneous tissue which is richly supplied by nerves.
b) Intramuscular - The drug is injected in one of the muscle like deltoids, triceps, glutes, rectus femoris, etc.
c) Intravenous - The drug is infused slowly in one of superficial veins, the drug is directly reaches to blood stream and produces effect immediately. 
d) Intradermal - The drug is injected into the skin raising a bleb (e.g. BCG vaccine, sensitivity testing). This route is employed for specific purpose only.

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Wednesday 16 January 2019

Introduction and branches of pharmacology

January 16, 2019
Introduction of Pharmacology and branches or division of Pharmacology.

INTRODUCTION AND BRANCHES OF PHARMACOLOGY

Pharmacology - is the science of drug, 
In broad- it deals with exogenously administered chemical molecules with living system, or any single chemical material which can produce a biological response known as drug .

Drug - Drug is a single chemical substance present in medicine used for diagnosis, treatment, cure of diseases in animals and humans.


BRANCHES/DIVISIONS OF PHARMACOLOGY 

[1] Pharmacodynamic 
     It includes physiological and biochemical effect of drug at organ system/subcellular/macromolecular level.

[2] Pharmacokinetics 
     This refers to movement of drug in and alteration of drug in body, it includes absorption, localization, distribution, biotransformation, and excretion of drug.

[3] Pharmacotherapeutics
      It is the application of pharmacological information together with knowledge of disease for its prevention and cure.

[4] Clinical Pharmacology 
      The aim of clinical pharmacology is to generate the data for optimum use of drug.
     Also includes scientific study of new and old drugs.

[5] Chemotherapy
      It is the treatment of systemic infection or malignancy with specefic drugs that have selective toxicity for the infecting organism/malignant cell with no or minimal effect on host cell.

[6] Pharmacy
      It is the technique and science of compounding and dispensing drugs for administration of drugs to man and animals.
      It includes collection, identification, purification, isolation, standardisation, and quality control of medicinal substances.

[7] Toxicology
      It is the study of poisonous effect of drug and otherchemical substances.
      It also includes study of adverse effect of drugs.





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